Confucius emphasized the significance of ritual and music in shaping one's character. He believed that engaging in these activities with sincerity and reverence could transform one's desires and promote moral development.

For instance, participating in family traditions or community ceremonies with genuine respect can foster a sense of belonging and ethical behavior. Similarly, appreciating and playing music with an understanding of its cultural and emotional depth can enhance empathy and self-awareness.

Filial piety, or respect for one's parents and ancestors, is a cornerstone of Confucius' teachings.

This principle can be applied in everyday life by showing consistent respect and care for family members, understanding their perspectives, and valuing their contributions to our lives. It also involves honoring family traditions and learning from the wisdom of older generations.

Confucius' advocacy for righteousness and trustworthiness in public service translates well into modern professional ethics.

He urged individuals to prioritize moral integrity over personal gain. In today's context, this could mean acting with honesty and fairness in the workplace, resisting corrupt practices, and placing the common good above personal interests.

The virtues of benevolence, righteousness, ritual propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness form the bedrock of Confucian ethics.

These virtues guide decision-making in a way that prioritizes ethical considerations and the welfare of others. For example, when faced with a moral dilemma, one might ask: "Does this action reflect kindness and fairness? Am I being honest and respectful in this situation?"

Confucius was a strong advocate for lifelong learning and self-cultivation. This idea can be embraced by continually seeking knowledge, being open to new ideas, and reflecting on one's actions to become a better person.

According to his perspective, fostering personal growth contributes to a more informed and compassionate society.

Aristotle's concept of virtue ethics is centered around the idea of achieving eudaimonia, often translated as 'flourishing' or 'well-being', through the cultivation of virtues. Virtues, for Aristotle, are qualities that enable an individual to live in accordance with reason, the distinctive function of human beings. This approach differs from rule-based ethics; it's more about developing a good character than following a set of prescribed actions.

For example, consider the virtue of generosity. In Aristotle's view, being generous is not simply about giving to others; it's about giving the right amount, to the right person, at the right time, and for the right reason. This concept can be applied in everyday life, such as in deciding how much time, money, or effort to donate to a cause. The aim is to find a balance that contributes positively to both the individual's life and the lives of others, promoting overall well-being.

Aristotle's contributions to logic are foundational in the field of philosophy and the development of rational thought. He is particularly known for developing the syllogism, a form of reasoning that involves drawing a conclusion from two given or assumed propositions (premises).

See deduction, induction and argumentation

Aristotle's concept of the Golden Mean advocates finding a virtuous path between two extremes of excess and deficiency.

Consider courage. The mean here is being courageous, which is virtuous. The excess would be recklessness, while the deficiency would be cowardice.

In everyday life, applying the Golden Mean involves self-reflection and balance. For example, in professional life, this might mean finding a balance between working hard (virtue) and overworking (excess), or underworking (deficiency). Practicing this balance can lead to a more fulfilling and sustainable lifestyle.

Aristotle's metaphysics, especially his Theory of Causes, provides a framework for understanding why things exist and why they happen.

For example, in problem-solving at work, one might consider the

1. material cause (what something is made of),

2. formal cause (the design or plan),

3. efficient cause (how something is brought about), and

4. final cause (the purpose).

5. This comprehensive approach can lead to more effective solutions by addressing all dimensions of a problem.

Aristotle's perspective on rhetoric goes beyond mere persuasion; it is fundamentally about using language to reach truth and judgment. He saw rhetoric as a counterpart to dialectic, with the former seeking the means by which truth can be grasped through language. This perspective implies that rhetoric, when used correctly, is an essential tool for understanding and communicating truth, rather than just a means of persuasion.

Enthymeme and Dialectical Syllogism

In Aristotle's view, the rhetorical demonstration or enthymeme is a kind of syllogism that involves reasoning where a probable premise is implied rather than stated explicitly.

For instance, saying "She must be a teacher, she loves books" skips the explicit premise "People who love books can be teachers" but leads to a conclusion through implied reasoning.

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Aristotle emphasized that proofs in speech depend on ethos (character of the speaker), pathos (disposition of the audience), and logos (the argument itself).

For example, in a business presentation, ethos is established by the speaker's credibility, pathos by connecting with the audience's interests or emotions, and logos by providing clear, logical arguments.

He held ethos as the most crucial element since trust in the speaker is foundational for the audience to accept the speech. Great speeches effectively balances these three elements.

In aesthetics, Aristotle examines the nature of art and its impact on human emotions and thoughts. He believed art is a form of imitation (mimesis) that can provide both pleasure and an understanding of universal truths.

This idea encourages individuals to engage with art not just for entertainment, but also for deeper insight into the human condition and the world. In contemporary life, this might involve exploring different art forms to gain new perspectives and enrich one's emotional and intellectual life.

Mencius argued that human nature is fundamentally good, in contrast to other philosophers like Xunzi who believed human nature was evil.

In particular, his view is that humans have the tendency and ability to be good if they are raised in a conducive environment.

He further proposed that humans are born with "four beginnings" or innate moral tendencies, and have the innate capability to hold ‘moral’ emotions that represent these virtues.

Therefore, turning ‘bad’ is not a result of an innate bad constitution, but of one’s moral failure to cultivate moral rightness from the sprouts of human being's innate tendency for goodness.

According to Mencius, there are four innate moral tendencies or "beginnings" (siduan 四端) that all humans possess:

• Compassion/Benevolence (仁 ren) - The feeling of affection, empathy and compassionate concern for others' wellbeing. Mencius gives the example of immediately feeling alarmed upon seeing a child about to fall into a well and acting appropriately in response i.e. saving the child.

• Shame/Righteousness (義 yi) - The sense of shame and dislike towards improper behaviour. This relates to having a moral compass and feeling ashamed of wrongdoing.

• Respect/Propriety (禮 li) - The feeling of deference and respect, especially towards elders and social norms. This relates to courtesy and following social etiquette.

• Wisdom (智 zhi) - The ability to distinguish right from wrong. This relates to moral reasoning and judgment.

Mencius also suggests that wisdom and propriety are secondary in importance to benevolence and righteousness. As he states: "The core of benevolence is serving one's parents. The core of righteousness is obeying one's elder brother. The core of wisdom is knowing these two and not abandoning them. The core of propriety is to regulate and adorn these two."

This indicates benevolence and righteousness are foundational, with wisdom and propriety building upon them.

Other virtues, such as courage, are simply supplementary examples of these cardinal virtues.

Mencius advocated for benevolent rule and argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the welfare of the people.

He emphasized that the people are the most important element in a country, more important than the ruler. He stated "The people are the most important element [in a country]; the spirits of the land and grain are the next; the ruler is the lightest."

In present-day context, this implies a people-first approach to any form of governance where meeting the needs of the people is the priority.

While believing in innate goodness, Mencius stressed the importance of education and self-cultivation to fully develop one's moral nature. He saw morality as something that needs to be actively nurtured.

Mencius uses the metaphor of moral sprouts or seeds that need nurturing to describe this educational process. For a plant to grow, it is necessary that the plant is provided with the required ingredients, and that the plant is provided with a healthy environment.

Likewise, wisdom has to be cultivated under proper guidance, nurturing and the right environment, as opposed to the mere ‘knowing’ facts about good conduct. It is the former that will promote the internalisation of the virtues.

However, unlike Xunzi, who advocated for a more authoritarian educational model based on ‘grinding’ and ‘honing’ against one’s nature, Mengzi’s educational model is more ‘liberal’ and is based on self-discovery with the help of the right environment.

Xunzi famously argued that human nature is inherently bad or evil (性惡, xìng è), in contrast to Mencius' view that human nature is inherently good.

Whereas Mengzi believed that human beings are born with the capacity to be good, Xunzi believed that the base faculties that human beings are born with (our primitive impulses and desires) have the ability to lead us astray.

To avoid inflicting harm, it is necessary for these to be reflected on and tempered rather than given in to. Moral improvement and cultivation are therefore the key to transforming (not merely overcoming or ignoring) the inherent ‘evil’ nature of human beings.

This remains one of Xunzi's famous and controversial ideas of his time.

For Xunzi, rituals (禮, lǐ)— playing the role of a moral signpost— are a means of moral cultivation: they enable social cohesion as well as moral and psychological development.

These rituals must be befitting of “that which makes humans human” (ren zhi suoyi wei ren zhe 人之所以為人者), and it is through rituals that one discerns and learns the right moral principles, and that one becomes equipped to manage one's base emotions in an appropriate way.

Indeed, Xunzi also believed that the importance of rituals extends to the political: rituals are crucial to the maintenance of a well-ordered state, and victory in the battlefield is determined by the ruler’s ability to follow rituals.

Xunzi conceived of the Way (or dao) as observable patterns of conduct applicable to human beings.

The “Way” refers not to the Way of Heaven, but to the “Way that people practice”. It refers to the ethical principles of human conduct and governance that determine the propriety of the social norms and rituals.

Significantly, Xunzi claims that the ‘heart-mind’ (xin 心) i.e. the integrated centre of human cognition, emotion and moral reasoning in Chinese thought, is the organ through which we can understand the Way.

This involves 3 key attributes; emptiness, unity and tranquility:

• Emptiness (xu 虛) refers to the ability of the heart-mind to keep (unlimited) information and approach situations with an open mind free from preconceptions.

• Unity (yi 壹) refers to the ability of the heart-mind to combine and create meaning from diverse information. It allows one to understand complex situations holistically rather than getting lost in details.

• Tranquility (jing 靜) refers to the ability of the heart-mind to remain calm and clear, distinguishing between rational thought and fantasy or emotion. Through this discernment, one can process information accurately and make sound decisions without being affected by distractions.

Xunzi stresses the importance of using language carefully to prevent one from misrepresenting objective reality. This involves:

• Striving for clarity and precision in our speech and writing.

• Being mindful of how our words might be interpreted by others.

• Actively working to improve our vocabulary and the usage of terms to represent concepts.

Xunzi advocated for a rational, pragmatic approach to addressing issues. For instance, he argued that Heaven (tian) was simply the natural world, not a moral force, departing from more mystical interpretations.

Xunzi's naturalistic view of the world encourages us to:

• Seek rational explanations for phenomena.

• Question superstitions and unfounded beliefs.

• Appreciate the natural world without mystifying it.

Zhuangzi’s philosophy offers a unique perspective on how humans should live in harmony with the natural world. Unlike Confucianism, which emphasizes rituals and social propriety, or Mohism, which focuses on actions based on benefit and harm, Zhuangzi advocates for a more fluid and adaptive approach to life. His concept of dao (the Way) is deeply intertwined with nature, suggesting that human paths (daos) are not separate from the natural world but are part of its ongoing transformations.

Rather, Zhuangzi sees them as interconnected, emphasizing that humans should align with the spontaneous flow of nature rather than impose artificial structures upon it.

Zhuangzi encourages “wandering” or 遊 (you)—a metaphor for freeing oneself from societal constraints and embracing the limitless possibilities offered by nature. This involves letting go of fixed perspectives and adapting to change, allowing life to unfold naturally without rigid control.

Zhuangzi emphasizes the relativity of perspectives, arguing that truth and values are not absolute but depend on context and viewpoint. This is famously illustrated in his Butterfly Dream where he questions the distinction between being a man dreaming of a butterfly and a butterfly dreaming of being a man.

Zhuangzi further elaborates that our choices and moral commitments are shaped by our individual perspectives, which are themselves products of the natural flow of Dao (the Way). He argues that because our judgments of right and wrong are limited by our own viewpoints, it is unwise to rigidly cling to fixed ideas of what “should” or “should not” be.

Instead, Zhuangzi advocates for openness and adaptability in our interactions with others, recognizing that the natural world accommodates a diversity of perspectives.

Zhuangzi critiques the narrow moral frameworks of his contemporaries, such as Confucians and Mohists, for failing to embrace alternative paths to virtue. He sees their rigid adherence to specific moral or political ideals as restrictive and misguided.

In contrast, Zhuangzi champions a philosophy of personal freedom and flexibility, where one can “roam” freely through life by embracing transformation and understanding the legitimacy of differing viewpoints.

Unlike philosophies that prescribe a single moral or practical path, Zhuangzi highlights the diversity of possible daos. Nature does not dictate one correct way to live but offers multiple ways through which individuals can achieve self-realization.

This perspective encourages us to strive for mutual understanding and, where possible, adopt or accommodate others’ perspectives. When this is not feasible, Zhuangzi suggests finding ways to coexist harmoniously.

His philosophy challenges us to let go of dogmatic certainty and instead cultivate responsiveness and openness to the ever-changing circumstances of life. By doing so, we align ourselves with the dynamic and pluralistic nature of the world itself

Central to Zhuangzi’s philosophy is the idea of embracing change and transformation. By aligning with the natural rhythms of life, individuals can achieve a state of harmony where they act effortlessly and effectively, much like a skilled artisan who works in sync with their materials.

In our hyperactive "achievement society", Han advocates for the importance of contemplation, inactivity and lingering. He refers this as , in response to Hannah Arendt’s book Vita activa or of the active life, which advocates human action.

This involves taking some time to slow down, do nothing, and let our minds wander without any goal or purpose. Like taking breaks from work to daydream, going for leisurely walks in nature, or spending time alone in quiet reflection.

Han is known for his short, impactful sentences that create a "haiku effect". He believes you can "" rather than a long treatise.

Han analyses how digital technologies, social media, and smartphones lead to distraction, loss of attention and narcissism. We are becoming losing touch with reality.

To counter the disembodiment and of the digital world, Han suggests re-engaging with physical, sensory reality. We can spend time away from screens doing analog activities — reading physical books, writing by hand, making art and crafts, cooking, gardening. Anything that grounds us in our bodies and the material world.

In daily life, we can engage in both big and small rituals - family dinners, birthday celebrations, holiday traditions, community gatherings, religious services if applicable.

Han wants to re-enchant a world stripped of magic by information. We can cultivate an enchanted perspective by noticing beauty, strangeness and mystery in everyday things.

The scent of coffee, the play of light, the laughter of children, the complexity of insects, the imperfect uniqueness of handmade objects — contemplating beauty spurs meaningful action.

Thiruvalluvar accords great importance water. In fact, he devoted an entire chapter titled "The Excellence of Rain" to emphasize the critical role of rain in sustaining life on earth.

In this chapter, he outlines scenarios that would occur without rain, including hunger, farmers not plowing fields, lack of greenery, drying up of oceans, and even cessation of worship festivals.

He also uses analogies and metaphors to stress the value of water. For example, he describes rainwater as "nectar" and equates it to the very basis of a virtuous, ethical life. He explains that the path of virtuous conduct does not exist without the presence of rain to sustain the world.

He has also compared the generosity of a king to rain. Just as the world cannot survive without rain, people cannot thrive under a king lacking in kindness.

Thiruvalluvar places importance of leading an ethical life and upholding moral values like truth, gratitude, compassion, non-violence. Virtue or aram is considered the foundation for an ideal life and so must regulate the pursuit of wealth and pleasure.

While encouraging people to strive for economic prosperity, Thiruvalluvar advocates balancing wealth (porul) with virtue (aram) and love (inbam).

Through various aphorisms, he advises against unethical means and emphasizes justice and fair trade in business dealings.

A householder attains merit by properly serving their parents, spouse, children, guests and other social duties. Supporting ascetics and the needy is also important.

Thiruvalluvar considers a householder living a dharmic life as equivalent to a God on earth. In fact, out of the 1,330 couplets in the Thirukkural, 200 couplets focus on domestic virtue, providing guidance on household ethics and family life.

Rather than renouncing worldly life, Thiruvalluvar shows the path to moksha (liberation) through leading a holistic, fulfilling life as a householder by properly balancing aram (virtue) , porul (material pursuits) and inbam (love).

Tiruvalluvar does not see family life as an impediment to moksha but rather as a vital stage for cultivating the necessary virtues and detachment that enable spiritual liberation.

However, to achieve this, one must work towards cultivating inner detachment, equanimity and non-possessiveness while being engaged in family life. This prepares the mind for eventual renunciation that would lead to moksha.